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In recent years, educational reform, although still very much with us, has taken a decidedly different turn from the efforts that prevailed during most of the twentieth century. Policy makers continue to try to improve school practice, of course, but the most widely touted reform takes the form of specifying rigorous achievement standards accompanied by high-stakes testing. When students do not measure up, school officials are urged to deny them promotion or graduation. Presumably, positive results will ensure if children and youth are so coerced, but the actual outcome of such a policy is not clear. A recent front-page article in the New York Times reports that in Arizona, where high stakes testing has been adopted with enthusiasm, 70% of sophomores in a middle-class suburban high school failed in the mathematics examination. Statewide, the failure rate was 84%. Needless to say, policy makers are taking such results under advisement. Moreover, Arizona¡¦s experience was not an isolated one. California, Maryland, Massachusetts, Delaware, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Alaska also are reconsidering their testing policies, but the impulse to provide what is euphemistically called accountability is politically difficult to resist. The problem is that, in and of itself, testing is not a reform at all; it is at best a measure of success and in the right circumstances may become a spur to reform.

¡i­ì¤åºK¦Û¡GChanging course: American curriculum reform in the 20th century, 2002.¡j

 

 

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The aim of liberal education is human excellence, both private and public (for man is a political animal). Its object is the excellence of man as man and man as citizen.  It regards man as an end, not as a means; and it regards the ends of life, and not the means to it.  For this reason it is the education of free men.  Other types of education or training treat men as means to some other end, or are at best concerned with the means of life, with earning a living, and not with its ends.  The substance of liberal education appears to consist in the recognition of basic problems, in knowledge of distinctions and interrelations in subject matter, and in the comprehension of ideas.  Liberal education seeks to clarify the basic problems and to understand the way in which one problem bears upon another.  It strives for a grasp of the methods by which solutions can be reached and the formulation of standard for testing solutions proposed.  The liberally educated man understands, for example, the relation between the problem of the immortality of the soul and the problem of the best form of government; he understands that the one problem cannot be solved by the same method as the other, and that the test that he will have to bring to bear upon solutions proposed differs from one problem to the other.

¡i­ì¤åºK¦Û¡GR. M. Hutchins, The Great Conversation¡j

 

 

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Functional behavioral assessment has been defined as ¡§assessment that enhances understanding of the purpose and effect of the behavior(s) of concern, and which provides information that is useful in the development of a student¡¦s IEP [individual education plan]¡¨. There are three important considerations to keep in mind. First, The function of a behavior is its underlying motivation. It describes the payoff that the student obtains or maintains through the behavior. Second, the functions are usually not inappropriate or even maladaptive. Many students who misbehave, for example, do so to gain an undesirable goal. Finally, it is important to gain attention, but attention, by itself, is not an undesirable goal. Finally, it is important to remember that a student¡¦s symptomatic behavior may serve multiple functions or that one function may be exhibited through multiple behaviors. When multiple functions are suspected, however, the team should prioritize which ones will be addressed first.

There are basic principles to fellow in conducting an FBA. First, behavior should be assessed ecologically¡Xfocusing on the student in interaction with his or her environment. Next, behavior should be assessed across multiple contexts and programs. Third, behavior should be assessed using multiple theoretical perspectives, including psychodynamic theories, cognitive theories, and family-systems theory.. Behavioral assessments should also result from interdisciplinary collaboration. Finally, FBAs should ideally be implemented whenever behavioral problems inhibit school performance of a student or his classmates.

¡i­ì¤åºK¦Û¡GRaaines, J. D. (2002). Brainstorming hypotheses for functional behavioral assessment. School Social Work Journal, 26(2), 30 ¡V 45.¡j

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Beginning teachers should welcome supervision as a means to develop professionally.  In most schools the purpose of supervisory observation and conferences is to increase morale and effective teaching.

Teacher-supervision interaction, often referred to as clinical supervision, follows a similar pattern in many schools.  Members of the supervisory and administrative staff meet with new teachers at the beginning of the school year to acquaint them with school policies and programs.  As the school year gets under way, a grade-level or subject-related supervisor helps the novice plan lessons, suggests appropriate materials and media, and provides curriculum suggestions.  Ideally, this person informally visits the class for short periods of time to learn about the new teacher¡¦s style, abilities, and needs.  Later, at the teacher¡¦s invitation or by mutual agreement, the supervisor observes a complete lesson.  Such a visit is often formally planned in conjunction with a pre-observation conference to talk over the plans for the lesson and a post-observation conference to discuss the observation and evaluation of the lesson.

¡i­ì¤åºK¦Û¡GLunenburg, F. C., & Ornstein, A. C.  (2000).  Educational administration: Concepts and practices (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.¡j